Which of the following must be necessary to generalize the finding of an observational study to its population of interest?

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This question asks about what is necessary to generalize the findings of an observational study to its population of interest.
Option 1: random assignment. In observational studies, researchers do not randomize exposure or treatment; participants are observed in natural settings. Random assignment is a hallmark of experimental designs, not observational ones, so this is not required for generalizability in the observational context.
Option 2: BOTH random sampling AND random assignment. Since observational studies typically do not involve random assignment, the combination is not applicable here. The generalizability concern in observational research stems from how participants were sampled, not from any assignment process.
Option 3: random sampling. Random sampling helps ensure that the sample is representative of the population, which supports generalization of findings from the sample to the population of interest. If the sample is not representative, generalizability is compromised regardless of other aspects of the study design.
Option 4: bias. Bias refers to systematic errors that distort conclusions. While minimizing bias is crucial, the presence or absence of bias does not itself constitute a condition that must be present to generalize; in fact, high bias typically hinders generalization. Therefore, bias is not a necessary component for generalization—instead, it is something to avoid.

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Which of the following must be necessary to generalize the finding of an observational study to its population of interest?

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